2017 Printers

Saturday, February 25, 2023

Socio-economic

Socio-economic[edit]

A 2003 study in the United Kingdom found that "[p]ollution is most concentrated in areas where young children and their parents are more likely to live and least concentrated in areas to which the elderly tend to migrate," and that "those communities that are most polluted and which also emit the least pollution tend to be amongst the poorest in Britain."^[101] A 2019 UK study found that "households in the poorest areas emit the least NOx and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further."^[102]

Mechanical[edit]

Tesla Model S chassis with drive motor

Cutaway view of a Tesla Model S drive motor

Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency^[103] over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters.

EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines.^[104] While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.^[105]

Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.

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Nutrição na infância

Até os 6 meses de idade, é indiscutível a importância do aleitamento materno exclusivo pois fornece todos os nutrientes importantes para o bebê, além de anticorpos e outras substâncias fundamentais. Com o passar dos meses e anos, a criança vai conhecendo e experimentando todos os alimentos, sendo essencial que a mãe já comece a incentivar uma alimentação equilibrada à criança.

A infância é a fase inicial onde ocorre a formação e crescimento. A alimentação nessa etapa é essencial para um crescimento e desenvolvimento adequados.

Nesta fase é importante respeitar horários e refeições a serem realizadas. A criança deve comer cereais, verduras, legumes, carnes, leguminosas e frutas. Os pais não devem estimular o consumo de guloseimas e alimentos de baixo valor nutricional. Lembre-se que os filhos são o reflexo dos pais, e isso ocorre também na alimentação.

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Unbalanced

When too much of one or more nutrients is present in the diet to the exclusion of the proper amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced. High calorie food ingredients such as vegetable oils, sugar and alcohol are referred to as "empty calories" because they displace from the diet foods that also contain protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber.^[76]

Illnesses caused by underconsumption and overconsumption

Nutrients	Deficiency	Excess
Macronutrients
Food energy	Starvation, marasmus	Obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease
Simple carbohydrates	None	Obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease
Complex carbohydrates	None	Obesity, cardiovascular disease (high glycemic index foods)
Protein	Kwashiorkor	Protein poisoning
Saturated fat	Low testosterone levels,^[77] vitamin deficiencies^{[citation needed]}	Obesity, cardiovascular disease^[78]
Trans fat	None	Obesity, cardiovascular disease
Unsaturated fat	Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency	Obesity, cardiovascular disease
Micronutrients
Vitamin A	Xerophthalmia, night blindness, and low testosterone levels^{[citation needed]}	Hypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair loss)
Vitamin B₁	Beri-Beri
Vitamin B₂	Skin and corneal lesions, cracking of skin and corneal unclearation
Niacin	Pellagra	Dyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias, birth defects
Biotin	Biotin deficiency	Reproductive and teratogenic effects
Folate	Anemia	Masks B₁₂ deficiency, which can lead to permanent neurological damage
Vitamin B₁₂	Pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage
Vitamin C	Scurvy	Diarrhea causing dehydration
Vitamin D	Rickets, osteomalacia	Hypervitaminosis D (dehydration, vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin E	Neurological disease	Hypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant: excessive bleeding)
Vitamin K	Hemorrhage
Omega-3 fats	Cardiovascular Disease	Bleeding, hemorrhages, hemorrhagic stroke, reduced glycemic control among diabetics
Omega-6 fats	None	Cardiovascular disease, Cancer
Cholesterol	During development: deficiencies in myelinization of the brain	Cardiovascular disease^[78]
Macrominerals
Calcium	Osteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm, laryngospasm, cardiac arrhythmias	Fatigue, depression, confusion, nausea, vomiting, constipation, pancreatitis, increased urination, kidney stones, anorexia^{[citation needed]}
Magnesium	Hypertension	Weakness, nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, and hypotension
Potassium	Hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias	Hyperkalemia, palpitations
Sodium	Hyponatremia	Hypernatremia, hypertension
Trace minerals
Iron	Anemia	Cirrhosis, hereditary hemochromatosis, heart disease, cardiovascular disease
Iodine	Goiter, hypothyroidism	Iodine toxicity (goiter, hypothyroidism)

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Malnutrition

The term malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of conditions:

Undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low height-for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age)
Micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess
Overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and some cancers).^[73]

In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption; there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption. According to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital functions. The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like "household food security, maternal and child care, health services, and the environment."^[3]

Insufficient

The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board sets Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals. EARs and RDAs are part of Dietary Reference Intakes.^[74] The DRI documents describe nutrient deficiency signs and symptoms.

Excessive

The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. ULs are set a safe fraction below amounts shown to cause health problems. ULs are part of Dietary Reference Intakes.^[74] The European Food Safety Authority also reviews the same safety questions and set its own ULs.^[75]

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Friday, February 24, 2023

Customers

Online customers must have access to the Internet and a valid method of payment in order to complete a transaction. Generally, higher levels of education and personal income correspond to more favorable perceptions of shopping online. Increased exposure to technology also increases the probability of developing favorable attitudes towards new shopping channels.^[21]

Customer buying behaviour in digital environment

The marketing around the digital environment, customer's buying behaviour may not be influenced and controlled by the brand and firm, when they make a buying decision that might concern the interactions with search engine, recommendations, online reviews and other information. In modern shopping environments, people are more likely to use their mobile phones, computers, tablets and other digital devices to gather information. In an online shopping environment, interactive decision may have an influence on aid customer decision making, through online product reviews and user-generated content, typically provided through software from companies like Bazaarvoice and Trustpilot, or via social media.^[22]^[23] This content, which can include text or video-based reviews, customer photos, and feedback, is often displayed alongside products being sold on websites like Amazon, Target, and most other digital storefronts.

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Tim Berners-Lee in 1989,

The first World Wide Web server and browser, created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989,^[13] opened for commercial use in 1991.^[14] Thereafter, subsequent technological innovations emerged in 1994: online banking, the opening of an online pizza shop by Pizza Hut,^[14] Netscape's SSL v2 encryption standard for secure data transfer, and Intershop's first online shopping system. The first secure retail transaction over the Web was either by NetMarket or Internet Shopping Network in 1994.^[15] Immediately after, Amazon.com launched its online shopping site in 1995 and eBay was also introduced in 1995.^[14] Alibaba's sites Taobao and Tmall were launched in 2003 and 2008, respectively. Retailers are increasingly selling goods and services prior to availability through "pretail" for testing, building, and managing demand.^{[citation needed]}

International statistics

Statistics show that in 2012, Asia-Pacific increased their international sales over 30% giving them over $433 billion in revenue. That is a $69 billion difference between the U.S. revenue of $364.66 billion. It is estimated that Asia-Pacific will increase by another 30% in the year 2013 putting them ahead by more than one-third of all global ecommerce sales.^{[needs update]} The largest online shopping day in the world is Singles Day, with sales just in Alibaba's sites at US$9.3 billion in 2014.^[16]^[17]

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Environmental aspects of the electric car, Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries

Environmental[edit]

EVs release no tailpipe air pollutants; however, EVs are charged with electricity that may be generated by means that have health and environmental impacts.^[91]^[92]

The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are typically less than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle.^[93] EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.^[94]

One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from ICEs to EVs will not free up road space for active travel or public transport.^[95] Electric micromobility vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.^[96]

Internal combustion engined vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.^[97]

Since their first commercial release in 1991, lithium-ion batteries have become an important technology for achieving low-carbon transportation systems. The sustainability of production process of batteries has not been fully assessed in either economic, social or environmental terms.^[98]

Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed standards on the governance of technology worldwide.^[98]

The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and environmental commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.^[99]

One source estimates that over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035.^[100] Thus, much of the raw materials involved in EV production will rely on the extraction of scarce metallic ores.^{[improper synthesis?]} On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs.^[1

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Battery swapping

Battery swapping[edit]

Instead of recharging EVs from electric sockets, batteries could be mechanically replaced at special stations in a few minutes (battery swapping).

Batteries with greater energy density such as metal-air fuel cells cannot always be recharged in a purely electric way, so some form of mechanical recharge may be used instead. A zinc–air_battery, technically a fuel cell, is difficult to recharge electrically so may be "refueled" by periodically replacing the anode or electrolyte instead.^[79]

Dynamic charging[edit]

Dynamic charging technologies tested in Sweden^[80]^[81]^[82]
Type (and developer)	Power per receiver (and power pending further development)	Million SEK per km road both ways	References
Overhead power lines (Siemens)	650 kW (1000 kW)	12.4	^[80]^{: 140–144} ^[81]^{: 23–24, 54}
Ground-level power supply through in-road rail (Elways and NCC consortium)	200 kW (800 kW)	9.4-10.5	^[80]^{: 146–149} ^[81]^{: 21–23, 54}
Ground-level power supply through on-road rail (Elonroad and ABB consortium)	150 kW (500 kW)	11.5-15.3	^[81]^{: 25–26, 54}
Wireless power transfer through in-road inductive coils (Electreon)	25 kW (40 kW)	19.5-20.8	^[80]^{: 171–172} ^[81]^{: 26–28, 54}

TRL (formerly Transport Research Laboratory) lists three power delivery types for dynamic charging, or charging while the vehicle is in motion: overhead power lines, and ground level power through rail or induction. TRL lists overhead power as the most technologically mature solution which provides the highest levels of power, but the technology is unsuitable for non-commercial vehicles. Ground-level power is suitable for all vehicles, with rail being a mature solution with high transfer of power and easily accessible and inspected elements. Inductive charging delivers the least power and requires more roadside equipment than the alternatives.^[80]^{: Appendix D}

The European Commission published in 2021 a request for regulation and standardization of electric road systems.^[83] Shortly afterward, a working group of the French Ministry of Ecology recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others.^[84] The first standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been approved in late 2022.^[85] Following standards, encompassing "full interoperability" and a "unified and interoperable solution" for ground-level power supply, are scheduled to be published by the end 2024, detailing complete "specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road".^[86]^[87]

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Thursday, February 23, 2023

Signatures numériques

Une dernière façon de sécuriser les informations en ligne serait d'utiliser une signature numérique. Si un document comporte une signature numérique, personne d'autre ne peut modifier les informations sans être détecté. De cette façon, s'il est modifié, il peut être ajusté pour la fiabilité après coup. Pour utiliser une signature numérique, il faut utiliser une combinaison de cryptographie et d'un résumé de message. Un résumé de message est utilisé pour donner au document une valeur unique. Cette valeur est ensuite chiffrée avec la clé privée de l'expéditeur¹⁰.

Avantages et désavantages

Avantages

En se penchant sur le E-Business, on peut y trouver plusieurs avantages qui sont connecter à la facilitation du commerce. Les avantages de la mise en place d'outils de commerce électronique sont liés à la rationalisation des processus opérationnels et non pas tant à l'utilisation de la technologie. Voici quelques-uns de ces avantages :

Facile à mettre en place : Le commerce électronique est facile à mettre en place, même depuis le domicile. Les seules exigences sont un logiciel, un ordinateur et une connexion Internet.

Heures d'ouverture flexibles : Il n'y a pas de barrières temporelles puisque l'Internet est disponible pour tout le monde tout le temps. Vos produits et services sont accessibles à toutes les personnes disposant d'une connexion Internet.

Moins cher qu'une entreprise traditionnelle : Le commerce électronique est moins coûteux qu'une entreprise traditionnelle, mais il est plus coûteux à mettre en place. Le coût des transactions est également moins cher.

Aucune frontière géographique : Le plus grand avantage est la possibilité de dispersion géographique. N'importe qui peut commander n'importe quoi à n'importe quel moment, et n'importe où.

Subventions gouvernementales : La numérisation est très encouragée par les gouvernements et fournissent un soutien nécessaire.

Nouvelle entrée sur le marché : Il y a un grand potentiel qui permet aux entreprises d'entrer sur des marchés autrefois inaccessibles aux entreprises traditionnelles.¹²^,¹³

Désavantages

Malgré tous les avantages, il y a aussi certains inconvénients que nous devons corriger. Les limites les plus communes du commerce électronique sont les suivantes :

Manque de touche personnelle : Les produits ne peuvent être examinés ou ressentis avant l'achat final. Dans le modèle traditionnel, nous avons une expérience client plus personnelle, alors qu'avec le commerce électronique, ce n'est généralement pas le cas. Un autre facteur manquant de contact personnel pourrait également être dans les transactions en ligne.

Le délai de livraison : Les entreprises traditionnelles permettent une satisfaction instantanée puisque le client obtient le produit au moment où il l'achète. Il y aura toujours un délai d'attente avant de recevoir le produit. Par exemple, Amazon assure une livraison en un seul jour dans certains pays. Cela ne règle pas complètement le problème, mais c'est certainement une amélioration.

Problèmes de sécurité : La méfiance des clients vis-à-vis du commerce électronique peut être expliquée par les divers cas d'escroqueries en ligne. Les pirates informatiques peuvent facilement obtenir les renseignements financiers et personnels des clients. Certains clients ont encore du mal à faire confiance aux entreprises électroniques en raison du manque de sécurité, de fiabilité et d'intégrité

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Growth in online shoppers

As the revenues from online sales continued to grow significantly researchers identified different types of online shoppers, Rohm & Swaninathan^[8] identified four categories and named them "convenience shoppers, variety seekers, balanced buyers, and store-oriented shoppers". They focused on shopping motivations and found that the variety of products available and the perceived convenience of the buying online experience were significant motivating factors. This was different for offline shoppers, who were more motivated by time saving and recreational motives.

Michael Aldrich, pioneer of online shopping in the 1980s.

English entrepreneur Michael Aldrich was a pioneer of online shopping in 1979. His system connected a modified domestic TV to a real-time transaction processing computer via a domestic telephone line. He believed that videotex, the modified domestic TV technology with a simple menu-driven human–computer interface, was a 'new, universally applicable, participative communication medium — the first since the invention of the telephone.' This enabled 'closed' corporate information systems to be opened to 'outside' correspondents not just for transaction processing but also for e-messaging and information retrieval and dissemination, later known as e-business.^[9] His definition of the new mass communications medium as 'participative' [interactive, many-to-many] was fundamentally different from the traditional definitions of mass communication and mass media and a precursor to the social networking on the Internet 25 years later. In March 1980 he launched Redifon's Office Revolution, which allowed consumers, customers, agents, distributors, suppliers and service companies to be connected online to the corporate systems and allow business transactions to be completed electronically in real-time.^[10] During the 1980s^[11] he designed, manufactured, sold, installed, maintained and supported many online shopping systems, using videotex technology.^[12] These systems which also provided voice response and handprint processing pre-date the Internet and the World Wide Web, the IBM PC, and Microsoft MS-DOS, and were installed mainly in the UK by large corporations.

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IBM's online transaction processing (OLTP)

History of online shopping

One of the earliest forms of trade conducted online was IBM's online transaction processing (OLTP) developed in the 1960s, which allowed the processing of financial transactions in real-time.^[2] The computerized ticket reservation system developed for American Airlines called Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE) was one of its applications. There, computer terminals located in different travel agencies were linked to a large IBM mainframe computer, which processed transactions simultaneously and coordinated them so that all travel agents had access to the same information at the same time.^[2] At some point between 1971 and 1971, students at Stanford and MIT used the internet precursor ARPANET to make a deal to exchange marijuana, but the interaction doesn't qualify as e-commerce because no money was transferred online.^[3]

The emergence of online shopping as it is known today developed with the emergence of the Internet.^[4] Initially, this platform only functioned as an advertising tool for companies, providing information about their products. It quickly moved on from this simple utility to actual online shopping transaction due to the development of interactive Web pages and secure transmissions.^[5] Specifically, the growth of the Internet as a secure shopping channel has developed since 1994, with the first sales of Sting's album Ten Summoner's Tales.^[6] Wine, chocolates, and flowers soon followed and were among the pioneering retail categories which fueled the growth of online shopping. Researchers found that having products that are appropriate for e-commerce was a key indicator of Internet success.^[7] Many of these products did well as they are generic products which shoppers did not need to touch and feel in order to buy. But also importantly, in the early days, there were few shoppers online and they were from a narrow segment: affluent, male, 30+. Online shopping has come a long way since those early days and – in the UK – accounts for significant percentage (depending on product category as percentages can vary).

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Charging stations

Charging stations[edit]

Charging stations for electric vehicles:

Top-left: a Tesla Roadster (2008) being charged at an electric charging station in Iwata city, Japan.
Top-right: Brammo Empulse electric motorcycle at an AeroVironment charging station and Pay as you go electric vehicle charging point.
Bottom-left: Nissan Leaf recharging from a NRG Energy eVgo station in Houston, Texas.
Bottom-right: converted Toyota Priuses recharging at public charging stations in San Francisco (2009).

A charging station, also known as a charge point or electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is a piece of equipment that supplies electrical power for charging plug-in electric vehicles (including electric cars, electric trucks, electric buses, neighborhood electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrids).

There are two main types: AC charging stations and DC charging stations. Batteries can only be charged with direct current (DC) electric power, while most electricity is delivered from the power grid as alternating current (AC). For this reason, most electric vehicles have a built-in AC-to-DC converter, commonly known as the "onboard charger". At an AC charging station, AC power from the grid is supplied to this onboard charger, which produces DC power to charge the battery. DC chargers facilitate higher power charging (which requires much larger AC-to-DC converters) by building the converter into the charging station instead of the vehicle to avoid size and weight restrictions. The station then supplies DC power to the vehicle directly, bypassing the onboard converter. Most fully electric car models can accept both AC and DC power.

Charging stations provide connectors that conform to a variety of international standards. DC charging stations are commonly equipped with multiple connectors to be able to charge a wide variety of vehicles that utilize competing standards.

Public charging stations are typically found street-side or at retail shopping centers, government facilities, and other parking areas. Private charging stations are typically found at residences, workplaces, and hotels.